The Bronze Age (2300 – 800 BCE) was a pivotal era for mankind’s technological advancement. Key among these advancements was the evolution of bronze-casting technologies, which spanned several stages of complexity. One of the foremost artifacts from this era that has drawn archeological interest are Bronze Age Axes. They provide valuable insights into the significant cultural and social changes during this era due to their variability in form, size, and usage over this period.
The intricate craftsmanship of Bronze Age axes, with their diverse forms and regional styles, sets the stage for an exploration into the equally complex and ornate world of Bronze Age helmets, revealing the sophisticated metallurgy of the era.
Evolution of Bronze Age Axes
- Early Axes (2300-2150 BCE): The journey of metal axes in Wales began with the earliest ones made from Irish and British copper. The advent of bronze, crafted by alloying copper with tin from Cornwall, marked a significant advancement around 2150 BCE, leading to similar shaped bronze axes which swiftly replaced their copper predecessors. These early axes were crafted through a process of casting molten metal into simplistic flat stone moulds, followed by a series of hammering, sharpening, and affixing to wooden handles for use;
- Developed Flat Axe (1950-1750 BCE): Progressing into the later stages of the Early Bronze Age, axes evolved into slimmer profiles with broader blades. Innovations included tapered forms and raised edges, or flanges, which improved the attachment to wooden handles. While earlier axes had flatter forms, the newer versions featured enhancements that allowed for a snugger fit to the hafts. Some of these axes were buried alongside individuals, suggesting their role as grave goods;
- Palstave Axes (1500-1400 BCE): The Middle Bronze Age introduced the palstave, an axe with a more complex design featuring two-part moulds made of stone or bronze for casting. Palstaves are distinguished by their non-blade ends with projecting stops, which enabled a more secure fitting of divided and forked wooden handles. Their design provided improved functionality and ease of use;
- Advanced Palstave (1400-1275 BCE): A refinement of the palstave came slightly later, incorporating side-loops for attachment points with twine or rawhide, which were used to secure the wooden handle to the bronze blade. Some palstaves featured elaborate designs resembling shields, tridents, or midrib patterns, while others were simpler in appearance. The later variants of palstaves often had narrower blades, reflecting ongoing changes in design preferences;
- Socketed Axes (1000-800 BCE): The zenith of Bronze Age axe design is seen in the socketed axe, prevalent in the Late Bronze Age. These axes featured a hollow central socket for the wooden haft, cast in intricate three-part moulds made of stone, bronze, or clay. The addition of lead to the molten metal enhanced the flow into the moulds, demonstrating an increased understanding of metal properties. Commonly found in South Wales, these axes are characterized by decorative ribs on their faces and were frequently discovered in hoard groups, indicating their significance in the society of the time.
Bronze Age Axes: A Technological Evolution in Metalwork
Bronze Age axes represent a significant archaeological interest due to their frequent discovery and the extensive period they cover, reflecting a remarkable evolution in size and shape throughout the era. The transformation from basic flat axes to more complex palstaves and ultimately to socketed axes mirrors the technological advancements of the time. While many axes served practical purposes such as chopping wood, others are believed to have been used as ingots or votive offerings, often found individually or within large hoards of Bronze Age metalwork.
Flat Axes
The term ‘Flat Axehead’ categorizes these early tools within the Portable Antiquities Scheme database.
Copper Axes
- Date: 2500-2200 BC;
- Distribution: Predominantly in Britain, especially the east, and Ireland;
- Features: These initial metal axes were copper, distinguishable by their reddish hue and blackish patina, exhibiting a rough and hefty design. They feature a trapezoidal shape with a thick butt, reminiscent of stone axes, typically around 14mm thick. Classification into subtypes is based on variations in the butt’s narrowness and the sides’ straightness.
Bronze Broad Butted Axes
- Date: 2200-1950 BC;
- Distribution: Originating from at least three regions in Scotland, with diminishing prevalence towards the south of England and Wales;
- Description: Characterized by a narrow, often convex butt with rounded shoulders, these axes show signs of being ground and polished, and some feature decorative elements. They evolved from simple, curved-sided triangular shapes to designs with narrower bodies and straight sides, occasionally displaying early signs of stops or flanges. Stone moulds matching the shape of Migdale axes, particularly common in northeast Scotland, suggest these were set into a holed handle similar to Neolithic stone axes.
Developed Flat Axes – Narrow Butted
- Date: 1950-1850 BC;
- Distribution: Found throughout the UK, with certain types like Bandon more common in the north and others like Aylesford, Glenalla, Falkland, Scrabo Hill more prevalent in the south;
- Analysis: A trend towards axes with narrower profiles and straighter sides is evident, alongside a transition from holed handles to ‘knee handles’ with forked, angled ends designed to fit the newly developed axe shapes. This category encompasses a spectrum of shapes, ranging from those closely resembling Migdale axes with some advanced features to those nearly transitioning into the next stage, the flanged axe. There are five primary types: Aylesford, Glenalla, Falkland, Scrabo Hill, and Bandon, each with several variants.
Long-Flanged Axes
- Date: 1750-1550 BC;
- Distribution: Type Balbirnie prevalent in the north and Scotland; Type Arreton common in the southeast;
- Details: Marking the advent of flanges on axe edges, the Type Balbirnie, related to the developed flat axe Type Bandon, typically has straight butts and sides that flare at the blade edge, often featuring a median bevel and sometimes adorned with punched or engraved designs. Type Arreton axes, while similar to Balbirnie, are longer with higher butts and more pronouncedly curved sides, with occasional decorative elements.
Early Short-Flanged Axes
- Date: 1550-1450 BC;
- Distribution: Varied; Bannockburn axes suggest an Irish origin due to discoveries there and in western England and Scotland, also noted in the Thames Valley. Caverton axes are more northern and absent from regions of earlier axe finds. Cragg Wood axes primarily hail from Yorkshire but also appear in the southeast. Kirtomy axes span from Scotland to as far south as Yorkshire;
- Observations: These axes evolved from the long-flanged types and exhibit a broad range of shapes and sizes, likely reflecting the diverse, smaller-scale workshops of the UK at the time. This diversity, coupled with the scarcity of contemporaneous finds, complicates chronological placement. Main types include Bannockburn, Caverton, Cragg Wood, and Kirtomy, each with its variants.
Later Short Flanged Axes
- Date: 1600-1300 BC;
- Distribution: Widespread in Britain, with notable types such as Cargill and Callander in Scotland, and scattered finds like Ulrome. Lissett types are mainly from Yorkshire, while Balcarry axes are found in southwest Scotland, the southeast Highlands, southwest England, and Yorkshire, hinting at a possible Irish origin. Kirkless axes emerge from southeast Scotland, and Findowrie types are predominantly northern;
- Insights: A plethora of later short-flanged axe types exists, but limited discoveries challenge definitive dating and distribution assessments. Types identified include Cargill, Callander, Ulrome, Lissett, Balcarry, Kirkless, and Findowrie.
Median Winged Axes
- Date: 1200-1100 BC;
- Distribution: Sparse across England and Scotland;
- Details: Median Winged axes, identified by their large size, notched butts, straight sides, and short wings, are rare in Britain and are believed to be imports from northeastern France.
Palstaves Overview
The Portable Antiquities Scheme records ‘Palstave’ as an axe with a stop ridge where flanges taper into the stop, and it features a thicker section below the stop. Traditionally decorated, palstaves evolved to include loops for better haft security and are categorized into early, transitional, and late groups based on their design features.
Early Palstaves
- Date: 1500-1300 BC;
- Distribution: Primarily northwest England, the west, and southwestern regions;
- Characteristics: Comprising multiple types and variants, early palstaves are grouped based on design elements like shield patterns, midribs, and flange height, with over 14 distinct types recognized. These range from shield-patterned decorations and variable flanges to broad, fan-shaped blades with ornamental designs.
Transitional Palstaves
- Date: 1150-1000 BC;
- Distribution: Throughout Britain;
- Features: Characterized by the presence of a loop and a narrower blade compared to earlier versions, transitional palstaves have high flanges at the top that align straight from stop to butt, with minimal decoration and sometimes a midrib.
Late Palstaves
- Date: 1050-950 BC;
- Distribution: Across Britain and Ireland;
- Attributes: The late palstave phase features axes that may be ribbed, grooved, or plain, typically looped, and designed with short and narrow forms. The flanges are low and straight, extending minimally up the butt, while the stop ridge often stands out above the flanges.
Socketed Axes Overview
Identified by their sockets, socketed axeheads, as recorded in the Portable Antiquities Scheme database, stand apart from palstaves and flat axes. They are grouped into three primary categories based on geographic finds: the broad and stout axes from northern England, the ‘baggy’-shaped axes from Ireland, and the longer, narrower axes from southeastern England. Loops on these axes were designed for securing the head to the haft, with a vast array of types and variants existing across regions.
Taunton Axes
- Date: 1300-1200 BC;
- Distribution: Predominantly in southern Britain;
- Features: Characterized by their small loops, elongated narrow bodies with square or rectangular cross-sections, and square mouths, Taunton axes’ diminutive size suggests they might have functioned more like chisels than traditional axes.
Gillespie Axes
- Date: 1000-800 BC;
- Distribution: Southern Scotland;
- Description: These axes are recognized by their faceted, broad ‘baggy’ bodies with round mouths, typically having eight facets and a loop positioned lower on the body.
Dowris Axes
- Date: 900-800 BC;
- Distribution: Originating from Ireland;
- Attributes: Often described as ‘bag-shaped’ due to their wide and stout form, these axes feature round or oval mouths and curved sides, with internal ribs for hafting.
Meldreth Axes
- Date: 900-800 BC;
- Distribution: Southern and southeastern England;
- Details: Notable for their faceted bodies, often with eight sides but ranging from six to twelve, these axes have a distinctive trumpet-shaped collar and a loop adjacent to the collar’s lower edge.
Southeastern Axes
- Date: 1000-800 BC;
- Distribution: Southeast England and Yorkshire;
- Comments: These are among the most commonly found socketed axes in the UK, slender with a square or rectangular body and a squarish mouth, often with socket ribs and varying levels of decoration, including wing ornaments and pellet designs.
South Welsh Axes
- Date: 950-800 BC;
- Distribution: Mainly in southeast Wales;
- Observations: Distinguished by three ribs that converge sharply on the face and a loop on the lip of the cone-shaped collar, these axes are noted for their relatively poor craftsmanship.
Yorkshire Axes
- Date: 950-800 BC;
- Distribution: Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia;
- Insights: Identified by three fine ribs beneath a prominent collar and a square mouth, these axes have a broad flat section and may have internal socket ribs, suggesting possible functions in casting or haft attachment.
Linear Faceted Axes
- Date: 800-700 BC;
- Distribution: Throughout Britain;
- Analysis: These axes feature ribs enclosing well-defined facets or grooves, with production evident in East Anglia and Dorset during the later Bronze Age.
Sompting Axes
- Date: 800-700 BC;
- Distribution: Mainly in southeastern Britain and Ireland;
- Characterization: Large and somewhat narrow, Sompting axes boast a bulging collar with horizontal moulding and are looped, with options for decoration. Two variants, Roseberry Topping and Gembling, expand the classification of this type.
Armorican Axes
- Date: 800-700 BC;
- Distribution: Concentrated in the southeast and Wessex regions;
- Characteristics: These axes, typically looped and ranging from 5 to 12 cm in length, are noted for their straight sides, rectangular cross-section, and modest collar. Decorative elements like ribs are common. However, the thin metal and high lead content, combined with a lack of refined finishing and an extended socket to the axe tip, suggest that Armorican axes were not intended for practical use as tools or weapons.
South Welsh Axes
- Distribution: Found primarily in South Wales and Southwestern England;
- Description: Schmidt and Burgess (1981: 239) identify five key features that distinguish South Welsh axes from other three-ribbed types. Notably, the loop often originates at the lip of the collar in a style typical of Continental axes, rather than being positioned lower down, which is a significant departure from the norm in most British axe designs.
Conclusion
The wide array of axes from the Bronze Age serves as a testament to the dynamic and evolving nature of bronze-casting technologies during this period. From simplistic, utilitarian flat axes to the highly specialized and ornate forms of the later period, these axes provide a fascinating insight into our ancestors’ innovative spirit and craftsmanship. Moreover, they stand as symbolic representations of the Bronze Age societies — their beliefs, their skills, and their stories.